REASONING - ASSUMPTIONS

 For all Examinations where Aptitude is required. Especially banking.
Assumption based questions.......
He will give a statement and assumptions. we have to say whether the assumptions given by him are correct or wrong.

example ::

statement : Banking services are fine tuned to meet growing business needs - Advertisement

Assumption : 1. Banking is a part of business activity
                     2. Industrialists prefer better banking services.

a) Assumption 1 is implicit
b) 2 is implicit
c) either 1 or 2
d) neither 1 nor 2
e) both 1 and 2

Given statement is an advertisement. Here both the assumptions are implicit so the correct answer is e).

But how can we say the given assumptions are implicit or not we have to go for a long story but quickly given here directly taken from M K PANDEY.


we all know that Assumption is something which is assumed, supposed and taken for granted.

while inferring assumption we have to carefully look at the sentence for some words let us see what are those words.

----Definitive words
                 Some words in the sentence shows much impact on the whole sentence or statement. These words gives exclusiveness to the sentence and reduce the range or scope of the statement.
 Some Keywords among them are :::: Only, Best, Strongest, All, Definitely and Certainly etc.,

Ex:
 Statement : The BOP crisis has worsened and the governement should make every effort to boost exports.

Assumptions:  1. Exports are the best solution to avert the BOP crisis.
                       2. Exports are a reasonably good solution to the BOP crisis
                       3. Exports are the only solution to overcome the BOP crisis
                      4. The BOP crisi will be Definitely averted by boosting exports.
                      5. The BOP crisi will be Probably averted by boosting exports.

 Here only 1st and 5th assumptions are valid. we can not assume that improving Exports is the best or only or Definite solution to the BOP crisis.


----Conjuctions
          The nature of the conjuction which connects the two clauses has much impact in detecting assumptions.

Some significant conjuctions are ::  Because, So, Despite, Inspite-of, Evenafter, Although, As, As a result of.

Let A be one Clause of sentence mentions an event/fact/suggestion
       B is another  Clause of sentence mentions an event/fact/suggestion

then the following assumptions can be concluded

-> A(because/ as a result of B) is the statement here we can clearly assume
        ======B leads to A
-> A(therfore/hence B) is the statement
        ======A leads to B can be assumed
-> A(even after/ Despite/Inspite-of B) is the statement
       ====== Usually A does not occur when B occurs.
-> Not (even after/ Despite/Inspite-of B) is the statement
       ====== Usually A occurs when B does.

 example

There was a murder last night even after the police had arranged for maximum security around the area

Assumption is Arrangement of maximum security is usually sufficient to prevent murders.

Here the statement has conjuction "evenafter" so assumption will be of this pattern shown above.

----- Connotive phrases.
                Sometimes the author uses the words which are slightly indirect, unconventional

For example " It is true " can be written as

                  - It would be correct to say that.
                  - Even the most Sceptic of men would argue that
                 - It can be claimed with reasonable degree of truth that

NOW WE WILL TRY TO CATEGORIZE THE ASSUMPTIONS
SOME STANDARD CATEGORIES

***Existence/ NON-Existence of the subject
                  What is being talked about must be existing similarly, if its absence is being talked about it must not be existing.

we can clearly understand if we look at the following examples.

Love marriages are mostly end in divorce.

Assumptions : Love marriages do take place.
                       There are the cases of Divorce.
Existence of Love marriages and Divorce are assumptions


The company will not go into profit unless a foriegn trade manager is brought.

Assumption : At present there are no foreign trade managers in the company

Here the absence of foriegn trade manager is discussed so no foriegn trade manager exist is the assumption.

*****Adjectives
                   if there is adjective attached to the subject in the given statement we have to assume The subject does have the quality as denoted by the nature.

EX:

The Bright Red colloured sky looked beautiful enough to bring out poet in him.

Assumption : The sky appears bright red sometimes.

******Cause effect
                  Different versions of this questions
      1. Explicitly stating Cause Effect relationship.
           ex:  It rained last night. The grounds must have become wet
           Assumption : When it rains ground becomes wet
     2. Form of "Because no cause, hence no effect'
           ex : As you does not have the expertise, you cannot be selected.
           Assumption : Expertise is essential for Selection.
     3. Althogh cause , Yet no effect
          ex : Although the city was under knee deep water for 4 days in this monsoon, there was no outbreak of cholera.
          Assumption : Water logging usually leads to cholera

********course of Action
                  A fact/Report/observation is given followed by a suggested course of action
                  x----Given fact/observation/Report.
                  y----Suggested course of action

     Two type of questions based on this.
Type1--Negative aspect of  X is mentioned and Y is suggested
Type2--Positive aspect of X is mentioned and Y is suggested

Type1 Assumptions  --   X needs improvement
                                      Negative aspects of X are undesirable/harmful
                                     Y will improve X
                                     The advantage of adopting Y far overweigh the disadvantage of not adopting it.

Similarly Type2 assumptions will be positive

Example:  The working atmosphere in our public sector unit can only be described as indisciplined and uncoordinated therfore some harsh disciplinary actions need to be taken.

    Assunptions::   The working atmosphere in public sector units needs improvement.
                           Indiscipline and uncoordination are undesirable in any industry.
                           Taking harsh disciplinary actions would improve the working atmosphere of our public sector units.
                           The benefits outweigh the disadvantage of taking harsh disciplinary action.


********Analogy
                     A cause leads to some effect in one type of objects. It will also leads to the same effect in another type of objects

                Ex: properly fed and starved monkeys were made to run through a puzzle. It was seen that starved monkeys could not make their way fast. This proves that the lower intelligence of people in poor countries is the result of malnutrition.
                  Assumption :: The effect of malnutrition on the intelligence of monkeys is parallel to those on  human beings.

********* Advertisements/Notices/Appeals
                           Assumptions
                                  An Advertisement/Notice/Appeal does have some effect
                                  In case of an advertisement, that which is being highlighted is looked for and expected by people.
                                  In case of public interest notice, it is the duty of those issue it, to issue such notices
                                  In case of public interest notice, what is being advised must be benificial for people and its non practice is harmful in some way
                                  In case of an appeal the reason for issuing it exists
                                  In case of an official notice , the effect of its implementation will be benificial for organisation.


we have looked at standard categories of this assumption based questions.


Now we shall look at when the given assumption based on the given statement is invalid.

Two categories

1. Assumption is Outrightly incoorect.
     If the given assumption is contrtary to the given statement or no connection to the statement we can say invalid just by seeing.

2. Assumption cannot be outrightly incoorec but closer look at it shows invalid.
     (i) Restatement.
        An asuumption is invalid if it is mere restatement -putting the given statement again in different words
     (ii) Obversion.
        Two of the subject, verb, predicate are changed to negative which change the appearance of sentence but not meaning. then assumption is invalid.
     (iii) Conversion
         All X are Y --invalid assumption is some Y are X
         Some X are Y--invalid assumption is some Y are X
          No X are Y --  invalid assumption is no Y are X
       (iv) Inference
           Assumption is invalid if it can be inferred from statement
        (v) Long Drawn conclusion
           Assumption is invalid if it makes too far fetched reasoning or long drawn conclusion even if it appears to be probably correct
    
   






                   

SBI PROBATIONARY OFFICERS REASONING (HIGHER LEVEL) SECTION

The Reasoning section of SBI Probationary Officer Examination can be break down into three sections

1. Reasoning General
2. Higher level reasoning
3. Non verbal Reasoning

If we go through the trend of previous papers we can easily conclude that

Nearly 25 to 30 Questions are from General reasoning
            20 to 15 Questions are from Higher Level reasoning
            5 questions fixed from Non verbal Reasoning
.

Topics Under General Reasoning which are appeared in SBI PO question Papers

• Eligibilty Test 
• Mathematical operations
• Sitting arrangement
• Direction based tests
• Input output
• Odd pair
• Coding Decoding 
• Data Sufficiency

Topics Under Higher Level Reasoning

•  Assumptions
• Forcefulness of Arguments
• Evaluating Inferences
• Evaluating Given Courses of Action
• Cause and Effect
• Strengthening and Weakening Arguments
• Syllogism

Next Article will be on the Topic Assumptions (Higher Level Reasoning). How to solve the questions of Assumptions.

Appsc group 4 results latest information

Appsc results are going to be announced most probably by end of 2012 or january 2013. This news was published today i.e., on 20/10/2012 namaste telangana news paper.
Group 4 aspirants of andhra pradesh were waiting anxiously for the results but appsc didnot corrected even a  single paper of group 4. All the aspirants have to wait for 2 more months for the results. If this is the case selection process will take some more time nearly up to march 2013.
Here is the paper cutting given in namaste telangana news paper.

For confirmation visit this link of namaste telangana newspaper  click here
comment here for any help or queries.

HEART OF ALL GOVERNEMENT JOBS IN INDIA

All govt jobs in india require preperation of major aspect that is general studies or general awareness or general knowledge , whatever it may be bothers a lot. an aspirant may be good at quantitative and reasoning but  lacks with this general studies. It is a vast subject requires memorizing always and a thorough revision, even though  we are not sure sometimes we might not recollect. preperation of general studies require a different strategy. so general studies section is the heart of governement jobs examinations

one should go with memory mapping techniques, mind maps etc and revise those maps which can be easily memorized and recollected.

we are going to launch such a course on this website soon with experts guidances.
 thank you
keep visiting

APPSC GROUP-4 EXPECTED CUTOFF MARKS

Appsc Group-4 results are going to be released by 1st week of october

Appsc group-4 meritlist will be going to be release after the process of group-2

All the candidates in the meritlist may not be recruited.

after the verification of shortlisted candidates available in the district meritlist will be verified at their respective district collector offices. District board after verification releases final selected list of their districts and posts in which district board decision is final

These are the expected cutoff marks may not be exact but approximately. all measures and parameters are taken into consideration to give accurate output but aspirants dont be panic with this. the info what i got from outside may not be 100% correct. Dont consider this as final this is just to give a idea which will be nearer to the standard.

GENERAL

                                              OC       BC-A        BC – B       BC-C       BC-D        BC-E        SC         ST

 Probable cutoff         249     236          239             200          249          230          217         210

Meritlist cutoff          240      230         231              197           242          218          203         199

WOMEN

                                               OC       BC-A        BC – B       BC-C       BC-D        BC-E        SC         ST

Probable cutoff           236      206           198              197         219            190          194       187

Meritlistcutoff            230       200          192              190         210            185          186        173


aspirants can also give their views and comment about these expected cutoffs

PRIVATE JOBS IN SAP

Welcome to Jobs in SAP for Freshers 2012-2013 section. SAP jobs are in too much demand theses days because of booming it industry. Here you will find Jobs in SAP, for Freshers 2012-13, SD, Lab, Fico, ABAP, HR, Basis, MM, Sapient, BI, Background, Batch Jobs in SAP, India, Bangalore, Gurgaon, SAP Careers, Job Vacancies, Openings. About SAP India:- SAP Labs India is SAP's second largest Research & Development and Global Services & Support center in the world. Founded in November 1998, SAP Labs India is one of the four global development hubs (Germany, US and Israel being others) of SAP that contribute to all areas of the SAP product value chain- Research & Breakthrough Innovation, Product Development, Global Services & Support and Customer Solutions & Operations. SAP's eight Labs in different countries are industry role models for globally distributed development organizations and contribute heavily to the goals of SAP's business units. Bridging the gap between local market demands and SAP's development organization, SAP Labs set standards for excellence in innovation, efficiency, and reliability. Why SAP - Why Should i join SAP?:- Flexible Workplace:- Finding the right balance between your personal and professional lives can be tricky. That’s why SAP offers a range of flexible options, including adjustable work hours, sabbaticals, and even the opportunity to telecommute. Career Development:- SAP continue to foster your ambition with an extensive career development program that allows you to achieve your own personal and professional aspirations. Benefits:- SAP employee benefits comprise some of the most comprehensive of any organization in its class. Recognition for SAP:- SAP has received a number of global, national, and regional awards declaring us one of the world’s best companies to work for. It’s an honor to be recognized. But this acknowledgement wouldn’t have been possible without the over 47,000 hardworking individuals at SAP.   Apply Now

Computer knowledge for bank exams(IBPS AND SBI ASSOCIATE BANKS)

THIS SECTION OF COMPUTER KNOWLEDGE IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR ALL BANK JOB ASPIRANTS WHERE WE CAN SCORE EASILY.
THEY ASK ONLY BASICS FROM THIS SECTION

                                         COMPUTER BASIC KNOWLEDGE

Application Files- Program files environment where you can create and edit the kind of document that application makes

Bug- a fault in a computer program which prevents it from working correctly

Central Processor Unit (CPU) - This is where the entire computer's data processing is handled - all the data manipulation, calculations and formatting data for output.

Click- To select an object by pressing the mouse button when the cursor is pointing to the required menu option, icon or hypertext link

Close - To close a window that has been opened for viewing and / or editing

Computer- A general-purpose machine that processes data according to a set of instructions that are stored internally either temporarily or permanently

Cookie- A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server

CPU- An acronym for Central Processing Unit and is often used to refer to a computer system, such as "That beige box sitting next to my 24" flat screen monitor is my new CPU

Crash- Your computer or application no longer works correctly and so you "loose" all the work you've done since the last time you saved

Creating A File- Storing data as a file with an assigned file name that is unique within the directory it resides in

Delete- To remove an item of data from a file or to remove a file from the disk

Desktop- An on-screen representation of a desktop such as used in the Macintosh and Windows operating systems

Dialog Boxes- Takes over your screen and allows you to ‘dialog' with the computer

Directory (AKA Folder, sub-directory)- Allows you to organize files and other folders

Disk Space- This is the place where your files live. The greater the disk space the more files you can keep. More disk space is always better than less. You can never have much disk space.

Document Files- Files we care about (memos, letters, pictures, etc.

Documents- Files you create and edit

Double Click- To press the mouse button twice in rapid succession without moving the mouse between clicks

Drag- To move an object on screen in which its complete movement is visible from starting location to destination

Edit- To make a change to existing data

File Cabinet- Metaphorically, the hard drive (and other kinds of storage media like floppy disks) which store files and folders

Folder Icons- Collections of documents and other folders

Google¬- search engine on the web

Hotmail- free email service, now part of MSN

Icon View- Allows you to see icons of folders and files primarily as icons with little information

Icons- In a graphical user interface (GUI), a small, pictorial, on screen representation of an object, such as a document, program, folder or disk drive.

Keyboard-  This if the primary text input device. It also contains certain standard function keys, such as the Escape key, tab, and arrow keys, shift and control keys, and sometimes other manufacturer-customized keys.

Macintosh- Macintosh, Mac - a personal computer from Apple Computer

Mouse- Pointing device that allows you to tell the computer what to do

Mozilla- a web browser and successor to Netscape Communicator

Operating System (OS) - System software that allows your computer to work

Pentium- Microprocessor from Intel

Random Access Memory (RAM) - This stands for Random Access Memory. You can think of this as the "space" where you computer does its processing. The more space you have the more processes you can run at the same time. More RAM is always better than less. You can never have much RAM.

Recycle Bin- Place where you put files and folders that you may later want to delete or get rid of. Compare Trash

Resize Box- Allows you to change the size and shape of a window

Right click- To press the right button on the mouse. (This is Windows specific. On a Mac running System 8 or higher, you hold down the Control key and then click to get the same effect.)

Save As¬¬- Give the file a name and/or store the file in a certain place

Save- Tell the computer to create a file on disk that has the information you've put into the document (usually typing)

Scroll bar- Allows you to move around through your document

Shut down- To quit all applications and turn off the computer

Software- Instructions that tell the computer what to do

Spam- unwanted repetitious messages, such as unsolicited bulk e-mail

System files- Allows our computer to work

Trash- Place where you put files and folders that you want to delete or get rid of

Trojan Horse-  a malicious program that is disguised as legitimate software. The term is derived from the classical myth of the Trojan Horse. Analogously, a Trojan horse appears innocuous (or even to be a gift), but in fact is a vehicle for bypassing security

Unix- an operating system

Virus- a piece of program code that spreads by making copies of itself

Volume Icons- Devices that hold files and folders

Wiki or WikiWiki- a hypertext document collection or the collaborative software used to create it

ACE                       Access Control Entry

ADSL                    Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AGP                      Accelerated Graphics Port

AI                          Artificial Intelligence

ALGOL                 Algorithmic Language

ALU                      Arithmetic Logic Unit

ANSI                     American National Standards Institute

API                        Application Program Interface

APIPA                  Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing

APT                       Automatically Programmed Tooling

ARP                      Address Resolution Protocol

ARPANET           Advanced Research Projects Agency Network

ASCII                    American Standard Code For Information Interchange

ASF                       Advanced Streaming Format

ASP                       Active Server Pages

ATAPI                  Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface

ATM                     Asynchronous Transfer Mode

AUI                       Attachment Unit Interface

AVI                       Audio Video Interleave

BASIC                   Beginner`s All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

BCD                      Binary Coded Decimal

BDPS                    Business Data Processing Systems

BHTML                Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Language

BIOS                     Basic Input Output System

BIU                       Bus Interface Unit

BMP                     Bitmap

BPS                       Bytes Per Seconds

C-DAC                  Centre For Development Of Advanced Computing

CAD                      Computer Aided Design

CADD                   Computer Added Drafting And Design

CAI                        Computer Aided Instructuion

CAM                     Computer Aided Manufacturing

CAR                      Control Address Register

CASE                    Computer Aided Software Engineering

CCIS                      Common Channel Interoffice Signaling

CCNA                    Cisco Certified Network Associate

CD                         Compact Disc

CD RW                 Compact Disc ReWritable

CDMA                  Code Division Multiple Access

CDROM               Compact Disc Read Only Memory

CFG                      Control Flow Graph

CGI                       Common Gateway Interface

CGM                    Computer Graphics Metafile

CIDR                     Classless InterDomain Routing 

CIM                      Computer Integrated Manufacture

CISC                      Complex Instruction Set Computers

CIX                        Commercial Internet Exchange

CLR                       Common Language Runtime

CMOS                  Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

CMS                     Content Management System

CMYK                   Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key (Black)

COBOL                 Common Business Oriented Language

CORBA                Common Object Request Broker Architecture

CPI                        Clock Cycle Per Instruction

CPU                      Central Processing Unit

CRC                       Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRM                     Customer Relationship Management

CROM                  Control Read Only Memory

CRT                       Cathode Ray Tube

CUI                       Character User Interface

DAC                      Digital To Analog Converter

DAO                     Data Access Objects

DARPANET        Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Network

DBA                      Data Base Administrator

DBMS                  Data Base Management System

DCA                      Defence Communication Agency

DCL                       Data Control Language

DCOM                 Distributed Component Object Model

DCP                      Data Communication Processor

DDL                       Data Definition Language

DDOS                   Distributed Denial Of Service

DDP                      Distributed Data Processing

DFD                      Data Flow Diagram

DFS                       Distributed File System

DHCP                   Dynamic Host Control Protocol

DHTML                Dynamics Hyper Text Markup Language

DLC                       Data Link Control

DLL                        Dynamic Link Library

DMA                    Direct Memory Access

DML                     Data Manipulation Language

DMTF                   Distributed Management Test Force

DNA                     Distributed Internet Architecture

DNS                      Domain Name System (Server)

DOM                    Document Object Model

DOS                      Disk Operating System, Denial Of Service

DPI                        Dots Per Inch

DRAM                  Dynamic Random Access Memory

DSL                       Digital Subscriber Line

DSN                      Digital Subscriber Network

DTD                      Document Type Definition

DVD                      Digital Versatile Disc

E                            Electronic

EAROM               Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory

EBCDIC                Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

EDC                       Electronic Digital Computer

EDCDIC                Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

EEPROM             Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

EFS                        Encrypted File System

EJB                        Enterprise Java Beans

ENIAC                  Electronics Numerical Integrator And Calculator

EPROM               Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

EROM                  Erasable Read Only Memory

ERP                       Enterprise Resource Planning

EULA                    End User License Agreement

FAT                       File Allocation Table

FDD                      Floppy Disk Drive

FDDI                     Fiber Distributed Data Interface

FDMA                  Frequency Division Multiple Access

FIFO                     First In First Out

FLOPS                  Floating Point Operations Per Second

FO                         Fiber Optics

FORTRAN           Formula Translation

FPS                       Frames Per Second

FRAM                  Ferro Electric Random Access Memory

FTP                       File Transfer Protocol

GB                         Giga Bytes

GIF                        Graphic Interchange Format

GIGO                   Garbage In Garbage Out

GML                     General Markup Language

GPL                       General Public License

GUI                       Graphical User Interface

HDD                      Hard Disk Drive

HFS                       Hierarchical File System

HP                         Hewlett Packard

HPC                      High Performance Computing

HPFS                    High Performance File System

HSR                       Horizontal Scan Rate

HTML                   Hyper Text Markup Language               

HTTP                    Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

IO                          Input Output

IBM                      International Business Machines

IC                           Integrated Circuit

ICMP                    Internet Control Message Protocol

ICS                        Reduce Instruction Set Computer

ICT                        Information And Communication Technology

IDE                        Integrated Development Environment

IE                           Internet Explorer

IGMP                   Internet Group Management Protocol

IL                           Intermediate Language

IOP                       InputOutput Processor

IP                           Internet Protocol

IPX                        Internetworked Packet Exchange

IRAM                   Integration Ram

IRC                        Internet Relay Chat

IRDA                     Infrared Data Association

IRQ                       Interrupt Request

ISAPI                    Internet Server Application Program Interface

ISDN                     Integrated Services Digital Network

ISO                        International Standard Organization

ISP                        Internet Service Provider

ISR                        Interrupt Service Routine

IT                           Information Technology

ITPL                      Information Technology Park Limited (India)

JCL                        Job Control Language

JDBC                     Java Data Base Connectivity

JHTML                 Java Within Hyper Text Markup Language

JPEG                     Joint Photographic Experts Group

JSP                         Java Server Pages

KB                         Kilo Bytes

KBPS                    Kilo Bytes Per Second

L2TP                     Layer Two Tunneling Protocol

LAN                      Local Area Network

LCD                       Liquid Crystal Display

LDAP                    Light Weight Directory Access Control

LIFO                      Last In First Out

LIPS                      Logical Interfaces Per Second

LOC                       Lines Of Code

LSI                         Large Scale Integration

LSP                        Layered Service Provider

MAC                     Media Access Control

MAN                    Metropolitan Area Network

MAU                    MultiStation Access Unit

MB                        Mega Bytes

MBONE               Multicast Backbone

MBPS                   Mega Bytes Per Second

MBR                     Master Boot Record

MCP                     Microsoft Certified Professional

MCS                     Multicast Server

MDI                      Multiple Document Interface

MDS                     Microcomputer Development System

MFC                     Microsoft Foundation Classes

MFT                      Master File Table

MG                       Mega Bytes

MICR                    MagneticInk Characters Reader

MIDI                     Musical Instrument Digital Interface

MIMD                  Multiple Instruction Multiple Data

MIME                  Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions

MIPS                    Millions Of Instructions Per Second

MISD                    Multiple Instruction Single Data

MODEM             Modulator And Demodulator

MP3                     Motion Pictures Experts Group Layer 3

MPEG                  Motion Pictures Experts Group

MS                        Microsoft

MSDN                  Microsoft Developer Network

MSIIS                   Microsoft Internet Information Server

MSIL                     Microsoft Intermediate Language

MSMQ                Microsoft Message Queue

MSN                     Microsoft Network

MSRAP                Microsoft Remote Administration Protocol

MSRPC                Microsoft Remote Procedure Call

MTS                      Microsoft Transaction Server

MTU                     Maximum Transmission Unit

MUDS                  MultiUser Dungeons

NAS                      Network Attached Storage

NASSCOM         National Association Of Software & Service Companies

NCP                      Network Control Protocol

NDIS                     Network Driver Interface Specification

NDRO                  Nondestructive Read Out

NETBEUI             Netbios Enhanced User Interface

NIC                       National Informatics Centre, 

NIIT                      National Institute Of Information Technology

NNTP                   Network News Transfer Protocol

NSFNET               National Science Foundation Network

NTFS                    New Technology File System

NTP                      Network Time Protocol

OCR                      Optical Character Readers

ODBC                   Open Data Base Connectivity

OLE                       Object Linking And Embedding

OMR                    Optical Mark Reader

ONE                      Open Network Architecture

OOA                     Object Orient Analysis

OOAD                  Object Oriented Analysis And Design

OOP                     Object Oriented Programming

OOPS                   Object Oriented Programming System

OPEN GL             Open Graphics Library

OS                         Operating System

OSI                        Open System Interconnection

PC                         Personal Computer

PCI                        Peripheral Component Interconnect

PCMCIA              Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

PDA                      Personal Digital Assistant

PDF                       Portable Document Format

PDL                       Page Description Language

PDU                      Protocol Data Unit

PIC                        Programming Interrupt Control

PILOT                   Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching

PLA                       Programmable Logic Array

PLC                       Programmable Logic Controller

PNG                     Portable Network Graphics

PNP                      Plug And Play

PPP                       Peer To Peer Protocol

PPTP                    Point To Point Tunneling Protocol

PROM                  Programmable Read Only Memory

PS                          Post Script

RADSL                  RateAdaptive Digital Subscribes Line

RAID                     Redundant Array Of Independent Disks

RAM                     Random Access Memory

RAMDAC            Random Access Memory Digital To Analog Converter

RAS                       Remote Access Network

RD RAM              Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory

RDBMS                Relational Data Base Management System

RDO                      Remote Data Objects

RDP                      Remote Desktop Protocol

RFC                       Request For Comments

RGB                      Red Green Blue

RICS                      Reduced Instruction Set Computer

RIP                        Raster Image Processor

RISC                      Reduced Instruction Set Computer

ROM                    Read Only Memory

RPC                       Remote Procedure Call

RTC                       Real Time Clock

RTF                       Rich Text Format

RTOS                    Real Time Operating System

SACK                    Selective Acknowledgements

SAM                     Security Access Manager

SAP                       Service Access Point, Systems Applications Products

SCMP                   Software Configuration Management Plan

SD RAM              Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory

SDD                      Software Design Description

SDK                       Software Development Kit

SDL                       Storage Definition Language

SDN                      Integrated Service Digital Network

SDRAM               Static Dynamic Random Access Memory

SDSL                     Symmetric Digital Subscribes Line

SG RAM              Synchronous Graphics Random Access Memory

SGML                   Standard Generalized Markup Language

SIM                       Subscriber Identification Module

SIMD                    Single Instruction Multiple Data

SISD                      Single Instruction Single Data

SIU                        Serial Interface Unit

SMP                     Symmetric MultiProcess

SMS                      Short Message Service

SMTP                   Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SNA                      System Network Architecture

SNAP                   Sub Network Access Protocol

SNMP                  Simple Network Management Protocol

SNOBOL              String Oriented Symbolic Language

SOAP                   Simple Object Access Protocol

SPX                       Sequenced Packet Exchange

SQA                      Statistical Quality Assurance

SQL                       Structured Query Language

SRAM                  Static Random Access Memory

SRS                       Software Requirements Specification

STP                       Shielded Twisted Pair

SVVP                    Software Verification And Validation Plan

SW                        Software

TAPI                     Telephony Application Program Interface

TB                          Tera Bytes

TCP                       Transmission Control Protocol

TCPIP                   Transmission Control Protocol  Internet Protocol

TDI                        Transport Data Interface

TDMA                  Time Division Multiple Access

TPM                     Transactions Processing Monitor

TSR                       Terminate And Stay Residents

UDD                     User Datagram Protocol

UDP                      User Datagram Protocol

UI                          User Interface

UML                     Unified Modelling Language

UNC                     Universal Naming Convention

UNIX                    Uniplexed Information And Computer Systems

URL                       Universal Resource Locator

USB                      Universal Serial Bus

USRT                    Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitted

UTP                      Unshielded Twisted Pair

VAN                     Virtual Area Network

VAST                    Very Small Aperture Terminal

VB                         Visual Basic

VC++                    Visual C++

VCD                      Video Compact Disc

VDL                       View Definition Language

VGA                     Video Graphics Array

VHS                      Video Home System

VLIW                    Very Long Instruction Words

VLSI                      Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits

VPN                      Virtual Private Network

VRAM                  Video Random Access Memory

VRML                   Virtual Reality Modelling Language

VS                         Visual Studio

VSNL                    Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited

VVR                      Software Validation And Validation Report

VXD                      Virtual Device Driver

W3C                     World Wide Web Consortium

WAIS                    Wide Area Information Servers

WAN                    Wide Area Network

WAP                     Wireless Application Protocol

WBEM                 WebBase Enterprise Management

WDM                   Wave Division Multiplexing

WHQL                  Windows Hardware Quality Lab

WINDOWS ME Windows Millennium Edition

WINDOWS NT  Windows New Technology

WINDOWS XP  Windows Experienced

WINS                   Windows Internet Name Service

WMI                     Windows Management Instrumentation

WML                    Wireless Markup Language

WORM                Write Once Read Many

WSH                     Windows Script Host

WWW                  World Wide Web

WYSIWYG          What You See Is What You Get

XHTML                Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language

XML                      Extensible Markup Language

XSL                        Extensible Style Sheet Langauge

         

          Computer System Concepts and Components

The Computer System Concept:

A computer is more than a high-powered collection of electronic devices performing a variety of information processing chores. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that performs the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing end users with a powerful information processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer system is vital to the effective use and management of computers.

A computer is system of hardware devices organized according to the following system functions.

Input:
The input devices of a computer system include keyboards, touch screens, pens, electronic mice, optical scanners, and so on.

Processing:
The central processing unit( CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor.) In particular, the electronic circuits of the arithmetic-logic unit one of the CPU’s major components, perform the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer processing.

Output:
The output devices of a computer system include video display units, printers, audio response units , and so on, They convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human intelligible form for presentation to end users.

Storage:
The storage function of a computer system takes place in the storage circuits of the computer’s primary storage unit, or memory, and in secondary storage devices such as magnetic disk and tape units. These devices store data and program instructions needed for processing.

Control:
The control unit of the CPU is the control component of a computer system. Its circuits interpret computer program instructions and transmit directions to the other components of the computer system.

Central Processing Unit:
The central processing unit is the most important hardware component of a computer system. It is also known as the CPU, the central processor or instruction processor, and the main microprocessor in a microcomputer. Conceptually, the circuitry of a CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits the arithmetic-logic unit and the control unit. The CPU also includes circuitry for devices such as registers and cache memory for high speed, temporary storage of instruction operations, input/output, and telecommunications support.
The control unit obtains instructions from software segments stored in the primary storage unit and interprets them. Then it transmits electronic signals to the other components of the computer system to perform required operations. The arithmetic-logic unit performs required arithmetic and comparison operations .A computer can make logical changes from one set of program instructions to another (e.g, overtime pay versus regular pay calculations) based on the results of comparisons made in the ALU during processing.

Main Memory and Primary Storage Unit:
A computer’s primary storage unit is commonly called main memory, and holds data and program instructions between processing steps and supplies them to the control unit and arithmetic-logic unit during processing. Most of a computer’s memory consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory chips known as RAM (random access memory ). The contents of these memory chips can be instantly changed to store new data. Other, more permanent memory chips called ROM (read only memory) may also be used.
Secondary storage devices like magnetic disks and optical disks are used to store data and programs and thus greatly enlarge the storage capacities of computer system. Also, since memory circuits typically lose their contents when electric power is turned off, most secondary storage media provide a more permanent type of storage. However the contents of hard disk drives floppy disks, CD-ROM disks, and other secondary storage media cannot be processed without first being brought into memory. Thus secondary storage devices play a supporting role to the primary storage of a computer system.

Multiple Processors:
Many current computers, from microcomputers to large mainframes, use multiple processors for their processing functions. Instead of having one CPU with a single control unit and arithmetic-logic unit, the CPUs of these computers contain several type of processing units. Let’s briefly look at the major types of such multiprocessor designs.
A support processor design relies on specialized microprocessors to help the main CPU perform a variety of functions. These microprocessors may used for input/output, memory management, arithmetic computations, multimedia processing, and telecommunications, thus freeing the main processor to do the primary job of executing program instructions For example, many microcomputers rely on support microprocessors such as arithmetic co-processing load on their main microprocessors. A large computer may use support microprocessors called channels to control the movement of data between the CPU and input/output devices. Advanced microprocessor designs integrate the functions of several support processors on a single main microprocessor.

A coupled processor design uses multiple CPUs or main microprocessors to do multiprocessing, that is, executing more than one instruction at the same time. Some configurations provide a fault-tolerant capability in which multiple CPUs provide a built-in backup to each other should one of them fail.

A parallel processor design uses a group of instruction processors to execute several program instructions at the same time. Some times, hundreds or thousands of processors are organized in clusters or networks in massively parallel processing (MPP) computers. Other parallel processor designs are based on simple models of the human brain called neural networks. All of these systems can execute many instructions at a time in parallel. This is a major departure from the traditional design of current computers, called the Von Neuman design, which executes instructions serially (one at a time). Though difficult to program, many experts consider parallel processor systems the key to providing advanced capabilities to future generations of computers.


RISC Processors:
Many advanced technical workstations and other computers rely on a processor design called RISC (reduced instruction set computer). This contrasts with most current computers that use CISC (complex instruction set computer) processors. RISC processor designs optimize a CPU’s processing speed by using a smaller instruction set. That is, they use a smaller number of the basic machine instruction that a processor is capable of executing. By keeping the instruction set simpler than CISC processors and using more complex software, a RISC processor can reduce the time needed to execute program instructions.

Computer Processing Speeds:
Computer operating speeds that were formerly measured in milliseconds (thousands of a second) and microseconds (millionths of a second) are now in the nanosecond (billionth of a second) range, with picosecond (trillionth of a second) speed being attained by some computers. Such speeds seem almost incomprehensible. For example, an average person taking one step each nanosecond would circle the earth above 20 times in one second. Many microcomputers and midrange computers, and most mainframe computers, operate in the nanosecond range, and can thus process program instructions at million instructions per second (MIPS) speeds. Another measure of processing speed is megahertz (MHs), or millions of cycles per second. It is commonly called the clock speed of a microprocessor, sine it is used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing circuits or internal clock.
However, megahertz, ratings can be misleading indicators of the effective processing speed of microprocessors as measured in MIPS and other measures. That’s because processing speed depends on a variety of factors besides a microprocessor’s clock speed. Important examples include the size of circuitry paths, or busses, that interconnect microprocessor components, the capacity of instruction processing registers, the use of high-speed memory caches, and the use of specialized microprocessors such as a math co-processor to do arithmetic calculations faster. For example, Intel’s Pentium microprocessor runs at 66 to 200 MHz and is rated at over 100 MIPS, which the Pentium Pro microprocessor has a top processing rating of over 200 MIPS at similar megahertz speeds.

Computer Storage Fundementals and Devices
Data and information must be stored until needed using a variety of storage methods. There are many types of storage media and devices.

Computer Storage Fundamentals:

Data are processed and stored in a computer system through the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic signals in the computer’s circuitry or in the media it uses. This is called a “two-state” or binary representation of data, since the computer and the media can exhibit only two possible states or conditions. For example, transistors other semiconductor circuits are either in a conducting or nonconducting state. Media such as magnetic disks and tapes indicate these two states by having magnetized spots whose magnetic fields have one of two different directions, or polarities. This binary characteristic of computer circuitry and media is what makes the binary number system the basis for representing data in computers. Thus, for electronic circuits, the conducting (ON) state represents the number one, while the nonconducting (OFF) state represents the number zero. For magnetic media, the magnetic field of a magnetized sport in one direction represents a one, while magnetism in the other direction represents a zero.

The smallest element of data is called a bit, which can have a value of either zero or one. The capacity of memory chips is usually expressed in terms of bits. A byte is a basic grouping of bits that the computer operates as a single unit. Typically, it consists of eight bits and represents one character of data in most computer coding schemes. Thus, the capacity of a computer’s memory and secondary storage device is usually expressed in terms of bytes. Computer codes such as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) use various arrangements of bits to form bytes that represent the numbers zero through nine, the letters of the alphabets, and many other characters.

Storage capacities are frequently measured in kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), or terabytes (TB). Although kilo means 1,000 in the metric system, the computer industry uses K to represents 1,024 or (210) storage positions. Therefore, a capacity of 10 megabytes, for example, is really 10,485,760 storage positions, rather than 10 million positions. However, such differences are frequently disregarded in order to simplify descriptions of storage capacity. Thus, a megabyte is roughly 1 million bytes of storage, while a gigabyte is roughly 1 billion bytes and a terabyte represents about 1 trillion bytes.

Direct and Sequential Access:
Primary storage media such as semiconductor memory chips are called direct access or random access memories (RAM). Magnetic disk devices are frequently called direct access storage devices (DASDs). On the other hand, media such as magnetic tapes are known as sequential access devices.

The term direct access and random access describe the same concept. They mean that an element of data or instructions (such as a byte or word) can be directly stored and retrieved by selecting and using any of the locations on the storage media. They also mean that each storage position (1) has a unique address and (2) can be individually accessed in approximately the same length of time without having to search through other storage positions. For example, each memory cell on a microelectronic semiconductor RAM chip can be individually sensed or changed in the same length of time. Also any data record stored on a magnetic or optical disk can be accessed directly in approximately the same time period.

Sequential access storage media such as magnetic tape do not have unique storage addresses that can be directly addressed. Instead, data must be stored and retrieved using a sequential or serial process. Data are recorded one after another in a predetermined sequence (such as in numeric order) on a storage medium. Locating an individual item of data requires searching much of the recorded data on the tape until the desired item is located.

Semiconductor Memory:
The primary storage (main memory) of your computer consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory chips. Memory chips with capacities of 4 million bits (4 megabits) and 16 megabytes or more of memory chips can be added to your PC to increase its memory capacity. Specialized memory can help improve your computer’s performance. Examples include external cache memory of 256 or 512 kilobytes to help your microprocessor work faster, or a video graphics accelerator card with 2 megabytes or more of RAM for faster and clearer video performance. Removable credit-card-size and smaller “flash memory” RAM cards can also provide several megabytes of erasable direct access storage for PDAs or handheld PCs.

Some of the major attractions of semiconductor memory are its small size, great speed, and shock and temperature resistance. One major disadvantage of most semiconductor memory is its volatility. Uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or the contents of memory will be lost. Therefore, emergency transfer to other devices or standby electrical power (through battery packs or emergency generators) is required if data are to be saved. Another alternative is to permanently “burn in” the contents of semiconductor devices so that they cannot be erased by a loss of power.

Thus, there are two basic types of semiconductor memory: random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).

RAM:
random access memory. These memory chips are the most widely used primary storage medium. Each memory position can be both sensed (read) and changed (written), so it is also called read/write memory. This is a volatile memory.
ROM:
read only memory. Nonvolatile random access memory chips are used for permanent storage. ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten.

Frequently used control instructions in the control unit and programs in primary storage (such as parts of the operating system) can be permanently burned in to the storage cells during manufacture. This is sometimes called firmware. Variations include PROM (programmable read only memory) and EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory) that can be permanently or temporarily programmed after manufacture.

Magnetic Disk Storage:
Magnetic disks are the most common form of secondary storage for your computer system. That’s because they provide fast access and high storage capacities at a reasonable cost. Magnetic disk drives contain metal disks that are coated on both sides with an iron oxide recording material. Several disks are mounted together on a vertical shaft, which typically rotates the disks at speeds of 3,600 to 7,600 revolutions per minute (rpm). Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned by access arms between the slightly separated disks to read and write data on concentric, circular tracks. Data are recorded on tracks in the form of tiny magnetized spots to form the binary digits of common computer codes. Thousands of bytes can be recorded on each tracks, and there are several hundred data tracks on each disk surface, thus providing you with billions of storage positions for your software and data.

Types of Magnetic Disks:

There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including removable disk cartridges as well as fixed disk units. Removable disk devices are popular because they are transportable and can be used to store backup copies of your data offline for convenience and security.

Floppy disks or magnetic diskettes, consist of polyester film disks covered with an iron oxide compound. A single disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective flexible or hard plastic jacket, which has access openings to accommodate the read/write head of a disk drive unit. The 31/2 inch floppy disk, with capacities of 1.44 megabytes, is the most widely used version, with a newer LS-120 technology offering 120 megabytes of storage.

Hard disk drives combine magnetic disks, access arms, and read/write heads into a sealed module. This allows higher speeds, greater data-recording densities, and closer tolerances within a sealed, more stable environment. Fixed or removable disk cartridge versions are available. Capacities of hard drives range from several hundred megabytes to gigabytes of storage.


RAID:

Disk arrays of interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives have replaced large-capacity mainframe disk drives to provide many gigabytes of online storage. Known as RAID (redundant arrays of independent disks), they combine from 6 to more than 100 small hard disk drives and their control microprocessors into a single unit. RAID units provide large capacities with high access speeds since data are accessed in parallel over multiple paths from many disks. RAID units also provide a fault tolerant capability, since their redundant design offers multiple copies of data on several disks. If one disk fails, data can be recovered from backup copies automatically stored on other disks.

Magnetic Tape Storage:

Magnetic tape is still being used as a secondary storage medium in business applications. They read/write heads of magnetic tape drives record data in the form of magnetized spots on the iron oxide coating of the plastic tape. Magnetic tape devices include tape reels and cartridges in mainframes and midrange systems, and small cassettes or cartridges for PCs. Magnetic tape cartridges have replaced tape reels in many applications, and can hold over 200 megabytes.

One growing business application of magnetic tape involves the use of 36-track magnetic tape cartridges in robotic automated drive assemblies that can hold hundreds of cartridges. These devices serve as slower, but lower cost, storage to supplement magnetic disks to meet massive data warehouse and other business storage requirements. Other major applications for magnetic tape includes long-term archival storage and backup storage for PCs and other systems.

Optical Disk Storage:

Optical disks are a fast-growing storage medium. The version for use with micro computers is called CD-ROM (compact disk- read only memory). CD-ROM technology use 12-centimeter (4.7 inch) compact disks (CDs) similar to those used in stereo music systems. Each disk can store more than 600 megabytes. That’s the equivalent of over 400 1.44 megabyte floppy disks or more than 300,000 double-spaced pages of text. A laser records data by burning permanent microscopic pits in a spiral track on a master disk from which compact disks can be mass produced. Then CD-ROM disk drives use a laser device to read the binary codes formed by those pits.

CD-R (compact disk – record able) is another optical disk technology. It enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, then be able to read the data indefinitely. The major limitation of CD-ROM and CD-R disks is that recorded data cannot be erased. However, CD-RW

(CD-rewritable) optical disk systems have now become available which record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. In CD-RW versions using magneto optical technology, a magnetic coil changes the spot’s reflective properties from one direction to another, thus recording a binary one or zero. A laser device can then read the binary codes on the disk by sensing the direction of reflected light.

Optical disk capacities and capabilities have increased dramatically with the emergence of an optical disk technology called DVD (digital video disk or digital versatile disk), which can hold from 4.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. The large capacities and high quality images and sound of DVD technology are expected to eventually replace CD-ROM and CD-RW technologies for data storage, and promise to accelerate the sue of DVD drives for multimedia products that can be used in both computers and home entertainment systems.

Blu-Ray and HD-DVD are two new optical storage technologies that fight as the successor of DVD. Both HD-DVD and Blu-ray are high-definition optical disc formats, incompatible with each other. They were meant to replace the existing DVD format, which was and still is used by a large user community. HD-DVDs and Blu-ray discs are similar in terms of the higher storage capacities and a superior picture quality offered by them. Their storage capacities are higher than those of CDs and DVDs. However, a single layer HD-DVD can store 15 GB data whereas a single-layer Blu-ray disc stores 25 GB data.


Major Types of Computer Systems

Microcomputer Systems:
Microcomputers are the most important category of computer systems for end users. Though usually called a personal computer, or PC, a microcomputer is much more than a small computer for use by an individual. The computing power of microcomputers now exceeds that of the mainframes of previous computer generations at a fraction of their cost. Thus, they have become powerful networked professional work stations for end users in business.

Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes. For example, PCs are available as handhled, notebook, laptop, portable, desktop, and floor-standing models. Based on their use, they include home, personal, professional, workstation, and multi-user systems. Most microcomputers are desktops designed to fit on an office desk, or notebooks for those who want a small, portable PC for their work activities.

Some microcomputers are powerful workstation computers (technical work-stations) that support applications with heavy mathematical computing and graphics display demands such as computer-aided design (CAD) in engineering, or investment and portfolio analysis in the securities industry. Other microcomputers are used as network servers. They are usually more powerful microcomputers that coordinate telecommunications and resource sharing in small local area networks (LANs), and Internet and intranet Web sites. Another important microcomputer category includes handheld microcomputer devices known as personal digital assistants (PDAs), designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. PDAs use touch-screens, pen-based handwriting recognition of keyboards to help mobile workers send and receive E-mail and exchange information such as appointments, to do lists, and scales contacts with their desktop PCs or Web servers.


Multimedia Computer Systems:

Multimedia PCs are designed to present you with information in a variety of media, including text and graphics displays, voice and other digitized audio, photographs, animation, and video clips. Mention multimedia, and many people think of computer video games, multimedia encyclopedias, educational videos, and multimedia home pages on the World Wide Web. However, multimedia systems are widely used in business for training employees, educating customers, making sales presentations, and adding impact to other business presentations.

The basic hardware and software requirements of a multimedia computer system depend on whether you wish to create as well as enjoy multimedia presentations. Owners of low-cost multimedia PCs marketed for home used do not need authoring software or high-powered hardware capacities in order to enjoy multimedia games and other entertainment and educational multimedia products. These computers come equipped with a CD-ROM drive, stereo speakers, additional memory, a high-performance processor, and other multimedia processing capabilities.

People who want to create their own multimedia production may have to spend several thousand dollars to put together a high-performance multimedia authoring system. This includes a high-resolution color graphics monitor, sound and video capture boards, a high-performance microprocessor with multimedia capabilities, additional megabytes of memory, and several gigabytes of hard disk capacity. Sound cards and video capture boards are circuit boards that contain digital signal processors (DSPs) and additional megabytes of memory for digital processing of sound and video. A digital camera, digital video camcorder, optical scanner, and software such as authoring tools and programs for image editing and graphics creation can add several thousand dollars to the star-up costs of a multimedia authoring system.

Midrange Computer Systems:

Midrange Computers, including minicomputers and high-end network servers, are multi-user systems that can manage network of PCs and terminals. Though not as powerful as mainframe computers, they are less costly to buy, operate, and maintain than mainframe systems, and thus meet the computing needs of many organizations.

Midrange computers first became popular as minicomputers for scientific research, instrumentation systems, and industrial process monitoring and control. Minicomputers could easily handle such uses because these applications are narrow in scope and do not demand the processing versatility of mainframe systems. Thus, midrange computers serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers, and they still play a major role in computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). They can also take the form of powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications. Midrange computers are also used as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunication processing and network management.

Midrange computers have become popular as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet Web sites, corporate intranets and extranets, and client/server networks. Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprise wide manufacturing, distribution and financial applications. Other applications, like data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing.

Mainframe Computer Systems:

Mainframe computes are large, fast, and powerful computer systems. For example, mainframes can process hundreds of million instructions per second (MIPS). Mainframes also have large primary storage capacities. Their main memory capacity can range from hundreds of megabytes to many gigabytes of primary storage. And mainframes have slimmed down drastically in the last few years, dramatically reducing their air-conditioning needs, electrical power consumption, and floor space requirements, and thus their acquisition and operating costs. Most of these improvements are the result of a move from water-cooled mainframes to a new CMOS air-cooled technology for mainframe systems.

Thus, mainframe computers continue to handle the information processing needs of major corporations and government agencies with many employees and customers or with complex computational problems. For example, major international banks, airlines, oil companies, and other large corporations process millions of sales transactions and customer inquiries each day with the help of large mainframe systems. Mainframes are still used for computation-intensive applications such as analyzing seismic data from oil field explorations or simulating flight conditions in designing aircraft. Mainframes are also widely used as super server for the large client/server network and high-volume Internet Web sites of large companies.

Supercomputer Systems:

The term supercomputer describes a category of extremely powerful computer systems specifically designed for scientific ,engineering, and business applications requiring extremely high speeds for massive numeric computations. The market for supercomputers includes government research agencies, large universities, and major corporations. They use supercomputers for applications such as global weather forecasting, military defense systems, computational cosmology and astronomy, microprocessor research and design, large-scale data mining and so on.

Supercomputers use parallel processing architectures of interconnected microprocessors (which can execute many instructions at the same time in parallel). They can perform arithmetic calculations at speeds of billions of floating-point operations per second (gigaflops). Teraflop (1 trillion floating-point operations per second) supercomputers, which use advanced massively parallel processing (MPP) designs of thousands of interconnected microprocessors, are becoming available. Purchase prices for large supercomputers are in the $5 million to $50 million range.

However, the use of symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and distributed shared memory (DSM) designs of smaller numbers of interconnected microprocessors has spawned a breed of minisuper computers with prices that start in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.